| Peer-Reviewed

Review on the Biology of African Horse Sickness Virus and Its Vector

Received: 4 August 2020     Accepted: 19 August 2020     Published: 16 September 2020
Views:       Downloads:
Abstract

There are many infection and non infection disease those can decrease productivity of equine and even destroy their life. From those African horse sickness which caused by African horse sickness virus is the most characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates on equine. According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, the virus was Family: Reoviridae, Subfamily: Sedoreovirinae and Genus: Orbivirus which shares many morphological and structural characteristics with the other members of this genus, Bluetongue virus and Equine encephalosis virus. This virus double stranded RNA virus which contains two different proteins with nine serotypes. Transmission of this virus is based on presence of culicoidmidget arthropod mainly Cullicoides specious (c. imucola). This blood feeding arthropod transmit virus mechanically and transovarially, however entrance of the virus through different mechanism that virus used based on protein contains. Replication is done by replicate enzyme of virus in host cytoplasm & virus protein translation by host machinery. From all sero-type AHS types 1-8 are considered to be highly pathogenic for horses and disease results in high mortality (90-95%). This virus resistant to different chemical, temperature range and PH value due to presence of some proteins. Cullicoides have different specious those are small insect, obligate blood sucker. In general, after surveillance was done for both virus and insect, control and prevention of African horse sickness is overcome by flow control strategy of virus and insect. Even though this review have best contribution during develop control strategy.

Published in International Journal of Animal Science and Technology (Volume 4, Issue 3)
DOI 10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11
Page(s) 50-61
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

African Horse Sickness Virus, Bluetongue Virus, Cullicoides, Equines, Orbivirus, Protein, Serotype

References
[1] Aklilu, N., Batten C., Gelaye, E., Jenberie S., Ayelet, G., Wilson, A., Belay, A., Asfaw, Y., Oura, C., Maan, S., Bachanek-Bankowska, K. and Mertens, P. P. C. (2014): African horse sickness outbreaks caused by multiple virus types in Ethiopia. Transboundary Emergency Diseases., 61 (2): 185-192.
[2] Ansari, M. A., Carpenter, S. and Butt, T. M. (2010): Susceptibility of Culicoides biting midge larvae to the insect-pathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae: prospects for bluetongue vector control. Acta tropica., 113: 1-6.
[3] Aschalew, Z., Teshale, S., Keith, P and Feseha, G. (2005): Isolation and Identification of circulating serotype of African Horse Sickness Virus in Ethiopia: International Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine., 3: 42.
[4] Barnard, B. J. (1998): Epidemiology of African horse sickness and the role of the zebra in South Africa. Archives of virology. Supplementum., 14: 13-19.
[5] Bishop, J. V., Mejia, J. S., Perez de Leon, A. A., Tabachnick, W. J. and Titus, R. G. (2006): Salivary gland extracts of Culicoides sonorensis inhibit murine lymphocyte proliferation and no production by macrophages: American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene., 75: 532–536.
[6] Boinas, F., Calistria, P., Domingo, M., Martínez-Avilés, M., Martínez-López, B., Rodríguez-Sánchez, B., Sánchez-Vizcaíno, J. M. (2009): Scientific report submitted to EFSA on African Horse Sickness. May 28/ 2009, pp 1-61.
[7] Borkent A. World species of biting midges 2. Diptera: Ceratopogonidae; 2012.
[8] https://www.inhs.illinois.edu/files/8413/4219/9566/CeratopogonidaeCatalog.pdf. Accessed 10 Jan 2020.
[9] Borkent, A. Numbers of Extant and Fossil Species of Ceratopogonidae. 6 July 2016. Available online: https://www.inhs.illinois.edu/files/4014/6785/5847/WorldCatalogtaxa.pdf (accessed on 25 Dec 2019).
[10] Boyce, M., Celma, C. P., Roy, P. (2012): Bluetongue virus non-structural protein 1 is a positive regulator of viral protein synthesis. Journal of Virology., 9: 178.
[11] Burkhardt, C., Sung, P., Celma, C. C. and Roy, P. (2014): Structural constraints in the packaging of bluetongue virus genomic segments. Journal of general virology., 95 (10): 2240-2250.
[12] Carpenter, S., Groschup, M. H., Garros, C., Maria Luiza, M. F. and Purse, B. (2013): Culicoides biting midges, arboviruses and public health in Europe. Antiviral Research., 100 (1): 102-113.
[13] Carpenter, S., Veronesi, E., Mullens, B. and Venter, G. (2015): Vector competence of Culicoides for arboviruses: Three major periods of research, their influence on current studies and future directions. Revue scientifique et technique., 34: 97–112.
[14] Celma, C. C. P. and Roy, P. (2009): A viral nonstructural protein regulates bluetongue virus trafficking and release. Journal of Virology., 83: 6806–6816.
[15] Coetzer, J. A. W., Erasmus. B. J., African horse sickness, in: Coetzer J. A. W., Thomson G. R., Tustin R. C. (Eds.).(1994): Infectious diseases of livestock with special reference to southern Africa, Vol. 1, Oxford University Press, Cape Town,, pp. 460–475.
[16] Coetzer, J. A. W and Guthrie, A. J. (2004): African Horse Sickness: In Infectious Diseases of Livestock. Oxford University Press. Southern Africa, 1231, 12-46.
[17] Crafford, J. E., Guthrie, A. J., van Vuuren, M., Mertens, P. P. C., Burroughs, J. N., Howell. P. G., Batten, C. A., Hamblin, C., (2011): A competitive ELISA for the detection of group-specific antibody to equine encephalosis virus: Journal of virological methods., 174: 60–64.
[18] Deblauwe, I., de Witte, J. C., de Deken, G., de Deken, R., Madder, M., van Erk, S., Hoza, F. A., Lathouwers, D. and Geysen, D. (2012): A new tool for the molecular identification of Culicoides species of the Obsoletus group: The Glass slide microarray approach. Medical and Veterinary Entomology., 26: 83–91.
[19] De la Poza, F. (2013): Ns1 is a key protein in the vaccine composition to protect Ifnar (-/-) mice against infection with multiple serotypes of African horse sickness virus. PLoS one 8 (7): 701-97.
[20] Dennis, S. J, Meyers, A. E, Hitzeroth, I. I. and Rybicki E. P. (2019): A Review of Current Understanding and Vaccine Development. Viruses., 11: 844.
[21] de Waal, P. J. and Huismans, H. (2005): Characterization of the nucleic acid binding activity of inner core protein VP6 of African horse sickness virus. Archives of virology., 150 (10): 2037-2050.
[22] Doninck, J., Van, B,. Baets, J., De Peters, G., Hendrickx and Ducheyne, E. (2014): Modelling the Spatial Distribution of Culicoides imicola. Remote Sensing., 6: 6604-6619.
[23] Erasmus, B. J. (2000): Cultivation of horse sickness virus in tissue culture. Nature 200: 716–719.
[24] Erasmus, B. J. (2006): Some observations on the propagation of horse sickness virus in tissue culture. Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics)., 6: 923–928.
[25] European Food Safety Authority: Scientific Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare on the EFSA Selfmandate on bluetongue and occurrence. EFSA Jan 2007., 408: 1–20.
[26] Fall, M., Diarra, M., Fall, A. G., Balenghien, T., Seck, M. T., Bouyer, J. and Baldet, T. (2015): Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) midges, the vectors of African horse sickness virus – a host/vector contact study in the Niayes area of Senegal. Parasite and Vector., 8 (1), : 39.
[27] Forzan, M., Marsh, M. and Roy, P. (2007): Bluetongue virus entry into cells. J. Virol., 81: 4819–4827.
[28] Gardner, I. A. and Maclachlan, N. J. (2009): Protective immunization of horses with a recombinant canarypox virus vectored vaccine co-expressing genes encoding the outer capsid proteins of African horse sickness virus. Vaccine, 27: 4434-4438.
[29] Gebreegziabher, B. (2008): African Horse Sickness, Ethiopia. Available at http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/ Review report /Review? Page refer=Map Full Event Report & reportid=7362(accessed Dec 15, 2019).
[30] Getaw, Y. and Dejene B. (2016): A study on the sero epidemiology of Africanhorse sickness in three woredas of Sidama Zone, Hawassa, Ethiopia. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health., 9: 235-239.
[31] Guichard, S., Guis, H., Tran, A., Garros, C., Balenghien, T., Kriticos, D. J. (2014): Worldwide Niche and Future Potential Distribution of Culicoides imicola, a Major Vector of Bluetongue and African Horse Sickness Viruses. plos one., 9 (11): 24-91.
[32] Guthrie, A. J., Quan, M., Lourens, C. W., Audonnet, J., Minke, J. M., Yao, J., HE, L., Nordgren, R., Gardner, I. A. and Maclachlan, N. J. (2009): Protective immunization of horses with a recombinant canarypox virus vectored vaccine co-expressing genes encoding the outer capsid proteins of African horse sickness virus. Vaccine., 27: 4434-8.
[33] Hassink, J., De Bruin, S., Berget, B., & Elings, M. (2017); Exploring the Role of Farm Animals in Providing Care at Care Farms. Animals., 7 (12), 45.
[34] Health, W. O. f. A. (2014): Terrestrial Animal Code, OIE World Organisation forAnimal Health Paris. http://www.oie.int. p Chapter 12.
[35] Henning, M. M. (1956): African horse sickness, perdesiekte, Pestis equorum. in Animal Diseases in South African. 3rd edition. Edited by. South Africa, Central News Agency, 785–808.
[36] Howell, P. G (1960): The epizootic in the Middle East and SW Asia. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association., 31: 329–334.
[37] International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. 2011. http://ictvonline.org.
[38] Jin Yi (2017): Characterisation of the African horse sickness virus NS4 protein. PhD thesis. College of Medical, Veterinary & Life SciencesUniversity of Glasgow.
[39] Jones, L., Hawes, P., Salguero, J. and Castillo-Olivares. (2019): African Horse Sickness virus: pathogenicity in an IFNAR(-/-) mouse model of infection. Journal of Pathology and Microbiology. 1: 102.
[40] Kanai, Y., Piet, A., Rijnb, v., Maris-Veldhuis, M., Kanamea. Y and Athmarama, T. N. (2014): Immunogenicity of recombinant VP2 proteins of all nine serotypes of African horse sickness virus. Vaccine., 32: 4932–4937.
[41] Kassa., D. (2006): African horse sickness: Study on seroprevalence and identification of risk factors in equidae at selected sites in Ethiopia. MSc Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary medicine. Addis Ababa University, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.
[42] Kar, A. K., Bhattacharya, B. and Roy P. (2007): Bluetongue virus RNA binding protein NS2 is a modulator of viral replication and assembly. BMC Molecular Biology., 8 (1): 4.
[43] Kameke, D., Kampen, H. and Walther, D. (2017): Activity of Culicoides spp. (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) inside and outside of livestock stables in late winter and spring. Parasitology Research., 116 (3): 881–889.
[44] Leforban, Y., Mabratu, G. Y., Vigier, M. and Y. Fikre. (1983).: Epidemiologic study of African horse sickness in Ethiopia from 1977–1981., Revue scientifique et technique International Office of Epizootics., 36: 117–129.
[45] Lefevre, P. C., Blancou, R., Chermette, J. and Uilenberg, G. (2010): Infectious and Parasitic diseases of livestock. Lavoisier., 1: 689-704.
[46] Logan, J. G., Cook, J. I., Mordue Luntz, A. J. and Kline, D. L. (2010); Understanding and exploiting olfaction for the surveillance and control of Culicoides biting midges. in: Takken, W. and Knols, B. G. J. (ed.) Olfaction in vector-host interactions Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, Netherlands. pp. 217-246.
[47] Long, M. T. and Guthrie, A. J. (2014): African Horse Sickness. In: Equine infectious diseases, 2nd edn., Eds: D. C. Sellon and M. T. Long, Elsevier Health Sciences. pp 181-188.
[48] Lulla, V., Lulla, A., Wernike, K., Aebischer, A., Beer, M. and Roy P. (2016): Assembly of replication-incompetent African horse sickness virus particles: rational design of vaccines for all serotypes. Journal of Virology., 90: 7405–7414.
[49] MacLachlan, N. G. and Dubovi, E. J. (2011): Fenner’s Veterinary Virology. 4th ed. China, Academic press, pp: 285-287.
[50] Malim, M. H. (2006): Natural resistance to Human immunodeficiency virus infection: the Vif–APOBEC interaction. Comptes Rendus Biologies., 329 (11): 871-875.
[51] Manole, V., Laurinmaki, P., Van Wyngaardt, W., Potgieter, C. A., Wright, I. M., Venter, G. J., van Dijk, A. A., Sewell, B. T. and Butcher, S. J. (2012): Structural insight into African horsesickness virus infection. Journal of Virology., 86: 7858–7866.
[52] Mathieu, B., Cêtre-Sossah, C., Garros, C., Chavernac, D., Balenghien, T., Carpenter, S., Setier-Rio, M. L., Vignes-Lebbe, R., Ung, V. and Candolfi, E. (2012): Development and validation of IIKC: An interactive Identification key for Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) females from the western Palaearctic region. Parasites andVectors., 5: 137
[53] Mayo, C. E., Osborne, C. J., Mullens, B. A., Gerry, A. C., Gardner, I. A., Reisen, W. K., MacLachlan, N. J. (2014): Seasonal Variation and Impact of Waste-Water Lagoons as Larval Habitat on the Population Dynamics of Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratpogonidae) at Two Dairy Farms in Northern California. PLoS ONE, 9 (2): e89633. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089633.
[54] Mecham, J. O. and McHolland, L. E. (2010): Measurement of bluetongue virus binding to a mammalian cell Surface receptor by an in situ immune fluorescent staining technique. Journal of virological methods., 165: 112–115.
[55] Meiswinkel, R., Gomulski, L. M., Delécolle, J. C., Goffredo, M. and Gasperi, G. (2004): The taxonomy of Culicoides vector complexes. Veterinaria Italiana., 40 (3): 151-159.
[56] Meiring, T. L., Meiring, r. L., Huismans, H., and Staden V. v. (2009): Genome segment reassortment identifies nonstructural protein NS3 as a key protein in African horsesickness virus release and alteration of membrane permeability. Archives of virology., 154 (2): 263-271.
[57] Mellor, P. S. (1993): African horse sickness: transmission and epidemiology. Veterinary Research., 24: 199–212
[58] Mellor, P. S. and Hamblin C. (2004): African horse sickness; Veterinary Research., 35: 445–466.
[59] Mertens, P. P. C., Attoui, H. and Bamforf, D. H. (2006): The RNAs and proteins of dsRNA viruses: African horse sickness virus.www.reoviridae.org/dsrna_virus_proteins/AHSV. HTPM. Last updated on the 20thMay 2006.
[60] Mirchamsy, H., Hazrati, A., Bahrami, S., and Shafyi, A. (1970): Growth and persistent infection of African horse sickness in a mosquito cell line. American Jornal of Veterinary Research., 31: 1755–1761.
[61] Mirchamsy, H. and Hazrati, A. (1973): A review of the aetiology and pathology of African horse sickness. Archives of Razi Institute., 25: 23–46.
[62] Mohl, B. P., and Roy, P. (2016): Cellular casein kinase 2 and protein phosphatase 2A modulate replication Site Assembly of bluetongue virus. J. Biol. Chem., 291: 14566–14574.
[63] OIE (World Organization for Animal Health). (2004): Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines. Available at: [http:// www.oie.int/eng/normes/m manual/A00034.htm]. Accessed on: (Dec 15, 2019).
[64] Office international epizootics (OIE). (2008): African horse sickness, in manual of diagnostic tests and vaccine for terrestrial animals Paris: Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics)., pp. 823-838.
[65] OIE (World Organization for Animal Health). (2011): OIE listed diseases. Available at: [http:// www.oie. Int/en/animal-health- in-the- world/ oie- listed-diseases]. Accessed on: (Dec 24, 2019).
[66] OIE, (2012): African horse sickness. In: Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. Office International des Epizooties, World Organization for Animal Health, Paris, pp. 1–12 Accessed on: (Dec 24, 2019).
[67] Owens, R. J., Limn, C., and Roy, P. (2004): Role of an arbovirus Nonstructural protein in cellular pathogenesis and virus release. Journal of virology 78 (12): 6649-6656.
[68] Patel, A. and Roy, P. (2014): The molecular biology of Bluetongue virus replication. Virus Reseacrch., 182: 5–20.
[69] Patel, A., Mohl, B. P. and Roy, P. (2016): Entry of bluetongue virus capsid requires the late endosomespecific lipid lysobisphosphatidic acid. Journal of Biological Chemistry., 291 (23): 12408-12419.
[70] Purse, B. V., Carpenter, S., Venter, G. J., Bellis, G. and Mullens, B. A. (2015): Bionomics of temperate and tropical Culicoides midges: knowledge gaps and consequences for transmission of Culicoides-borne viruses. Annual Review of Entomology., 60, 373-393.
[71] Radostits, O. M., Gay, C. C., Hinchcliff, K. W. and Constable, P. D. (2007): Veterinary Medicine, a Text Book of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses, 10th ed. London, Sounders Company, pp: 1179-1183.
[72] Ratinier, M., Caporale, M., Golder, M., Franzoni, G., Allan, K., Nunes, S. F., Armezzani, A., Bayoumy, A., Rixon, F., Shaw, A. and Palmarini, M. (2011): Identification and characterization of a novel non-structural protein of bluetongue virus. Plos Pathogen., 7 (12).
[73] Roy, P., Mertens, P. P. and Casal I. (1994): African horse sickness virus structure. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases., 17: 243–273.
[74] Sergeant, E. S., Grewar, J. D., Weyer, C. T., and Guthrie, A. J. (2016): Quantitative Risk Assessment for African Horse Sickness in Live Horses Exported from South Africa. PLOS ONE., 11 (3).
[75] Spickler and Anna Rovid (2015). African Horse Sickness. Retrieved from: http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/ factsheets.php.
[76] Stevens, L. M., Moffat, K., Cooke, L., Nomikou, K., Mertens, P. P. C., Jackson, T. and Darpel, K. E. (2019): A low-passage insect-cell isolate of bluetongue virus uses a macropinocytosis-like entry pathway to infect Natural targetcells derived from the bovine host. Journal of Geneneral Virology., 100: 568–582.
[77] Stewart, M., Hardy, A., Barry, G., Maria Pinto, R., Caporale, M., Melz, E., Hughes, J., Taggart, A., Janowicz, A., Varela, M., Ratinier, M. and Palmarini, M.(2015): Characterization of a second open reading frame in genome segment 10 of bluetongue virus. Journal of Geneneral Virology., 96 (11): 3280-3293.
[78] Tan, B. -H., Nason, E., Staeuber, N., Jiang W., Monastryrskaya, K. and Roy, P. (2001): RGD tripeptide of bluetongue virus VP7 protein is responsible for core attachment to Culicoides cells. Journal of virology., 75 (8): 3937 3947.
[79] Tesfaye Mulatu and Abdisa Hailu. (2019): The Occurrence and Identification of Culicoides Species in the Western Ethiopia. Acadamic Journal of Entomology., 12 (2): 40-43.
[80] Tkubet, G., Firesbhat, A., Demessie, Y., Bezie, G. and Yohannes, A. G. (2016): Review on African horse sickness. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences., 12 (5): 357-363.
[81] Van de Water, S. G., Van Gennip, R. G., Potgieter, C. A., Wright, I. M. and van Rijn, P. A. (2015): VP2 exchange and NS3/NS3a deletion in African horse sickness virus (AHSV) in development of Disabled Infectious Single Animal vaccine candidates for AHS. Journal of virology., 89 (17): 8764-8772.
[82] Van der Rijt, R., van den Boom, R., Jongema, Y. and van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, M. M. (2008): Culicoides Species attracted to horses with and without insect hypersensitivity. Veterinary Journal., 178: 91–97
[83] Van Gennip, RGP., van dewater, SGP., Potgieter, CA. and van Rijn, PA. (2017): Structural protein VP2 of African horse sickness virus is not essential for virus replication in vitro. Journal of Virology., 91: e01328-16.
[84] Van Rijn, P. A,. van de Water, S. G. P., Feenstra, F. and van Gennip R. G. P. (2016): Requirements and comparative Analysis of Reverse genetics for bluetongue virus (BTV) and African horse sickness virus (AHSV). Journal of Virology., 13 (1): 119.
[85] Van, S. J., Drew, T. M., Kotze, J. L., Strydom, T., Weyer, C. T., & Guthrie, A. J (2013): Occurrence of African horse sickness in a domestic dog without apparent ingestion of horse meat. Journal of South African Veterinary Association., 84 (1): 1-5.
[86] Venter, E., Van der Merwe, C. F., Buys, A. V., Huismans, H. and Van Staden, V. (2014): Comparative ultrastructural characterization of African horse sickness virus-infected mammalian and insect cells reveals a novel potential virus release mechanism from insect cells. Journal of Geneneral Virology., 95: 642–651.
[87] Vermaak, E. and J, Theron (2015): Virus uncoating is required for apoptosis induction in cultured mammalian cells infected with African horse sickness virus. Journal of Geneneral Virology., 96 (7): 1811-1820.
[88] Von Teichman, B. F and Smit T. K. (2008): Evaluation of the. pathogenicity of African horsesickness (AHS) isolates in vaccinated animals. Vaccine., 26: 5014–5021.
[89] Weyer, C. T., Joone, C., Lourens, C. W., Monyai, M. S., Koekemoer, O., Grewar, J. D., van Schalkwyk, A., Majiwa, P. O. A., MacLachlan, N. J. and Guthrie, A. J. (2015): Development of three triplex real-time reverse transcription PCR assays for the qualitative molecular typing of the nine serotypes of African horse sickness virus. Journal of Virology Method., 223: 69-74.
[90] Wilson A., P. C. Mellor C. Szmaragd and Mertens P. P. C. (2009): Adaptive strategies of African horse sickness virus to facilitate vector transmission. Veterinary Research., 29: 285-289.
[91] Wirblich, C., Bhattacharya, B. and Roy, P. (2006): Nonstructural protein 3 of bluetongue virus assists Virus release by recruiting ESCRT-I protein Tsg101. Journal of Virology., 80 (1): 460-473.
[92] World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), (2013): African Horse Sickness.”Technical Disease Card. www.oie.int.
[93] World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), (2014). – Infection with African horse sickness virus. Chapter 12.1. In Terrestrial Animal Health Code, 23rd Ed. OIE, Paris, 591–598. Availableat: www.oie.int/index.php?id=169&L=0&htmfile=chapitre_ahs.htm (accessed on 8 January 2020).
[94] Zientara, S., Weyer, C. T. and Lecollinet, S. (2015): African horse sickness. Revue scientifique et technique International Office of Epizootics., 34 (2): 315-327.
[95] Zimmer, J-Y., Haubruge, E. and Francis, F. (2014): Review on larval ecology of Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment., 18 (2): 301–12.
[96] Zhang, X., Boyce, M., Bhattacharya, B., Zhang, X., Schein, S., Roy, P. and Zhou, Z. H. (2010): Bluetongue virus coat proteinVP2 contains sialic acid-binding domains, and VP5 resembles enveloped virus fusion proteins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America., 107: 6292–6297.
[97] Zhang, X., Patel, A., Celma, C. C., Yu, X., Roy, P. and Zhou Z. H. (2016): Atomic model of a nonenveloped virus Reveals pH sensors for a coordinated process of cell entry. Nature Structural & Molecular Biology., 23: 74–80.
[98] Zwart, L., Potgieter, C. A, Clift, S. J. and van Staden, V. (2015): Characterising nonstructural protein NS4 of African horse sickness virus. PloS One, 10 (4): 1-18.
[99] Mellor. (1993) African horse sickness: transmission and epidemiology. Veterinary Research, BioMed Central, 24 (2), pp. 199-212. ffhal-00902118f.
[100] OIE (2013). African Horse Sickness. Technical Disease Card. www.oie.int.
[101] Page, M. J., Northcote, P. T., Webb, V. L., Mackey, S., & Handley, S. J. (2005): Aquaculture trials for the production of biologically activemetabolites in the New Zealand sponge Mycale hentscheli (Demospongiae: Poecilosclerida). Aquaculture, 250 (1-2): 256–269.
Cite This Article
  • APA Style

    Demessa Negessu, Takale Worku. (2020). Review on the Biology of African Horse Sickness Virus and Its Vector. International Journal of Animal Science and Technology, 4(3), 50-61. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11

    Copy | Download

    ACS Style

    Demessa Negessu; Takale Worku. Review on the Biology of African Horse Sickness Virus and Its Vector. Int. J. Anim. Sci. Technol. 2020, 4(3), 50-61. doi: 10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11

    Copy | Download

    AMA Style

    Demessa Negessu, Takale Worku. Review on the Biology of African Horse Sickness Virus and Its Vector. Int J Anim Sci Technol. 2020;4(3):50-61. doi: 10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11

    Copy | Download

  • @article{10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11,
      author = {Demessa Negessu and Takale Worku},
      title = {Review on the Biology of African Horse Sickness Virus and Its Vector},
      journal = {International Journal of Animal Science and Technology},
      volume = {4},
      number = {3},
      pages = {50-61},
      doi = {10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11},
      url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11},
      eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijast.20200403.11},
      abstract = {There are many infection and non infection disease those can decrease productivity of equine and even destroy their life. From those African horse sickness which caused by African horse sickness virus is the most characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates on equine. According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, the virus was Family: Reoviridae, Subfamily: Sedoreovirinae and Genus: Orbivirus which shares many morphological and structural characteristics with the other members of this genus, Bluetongue virus and Equine encephalosis virus. This virus double stranded RNA virus which contains two different proteins with nine serotypes. Transmission of this virus is based on presence of culicoidmidget arthropod mainly Cullicoides specious (c. imucola). This blood feeding arthropod transmit virus mechanically and transovarially, however entrance of the virus through different mechanism that virus used based on protein contains. Replication is done by replicate enzyme of virus in host cytoplasm & virus protein translation by host machinery. From all sero-type AHS types 1-8 are considered to be highly pathogenic for horses and disease results in high mortality (90-95%). This virus resistant to different chemical, temperature range and PH value due to presence of some proteins. Cullicoides have different specious those are small insect, obligate blood sucker. In general, after surveillance was done for both virus and insect, control and prevention of African horse sickness is overcome by flow control strategy of virus and insect. Even though this review have best contribution during develop control strategy.},
     year = {2020}
    }
    

    Copy | Download

  • TY  - JOUR
    T1  - Review on the Biology of African Horse Sickness Virus and Its Vector
    AU  - Demessa Negessu
    AU  - Takale Worku
    Y1  - 2020/09/16
    PY  - 2020
    N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11
    DO  - 10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11
    T2  - International Journal of Animal Science and Technology
    JF  - International Journal of Animal Science and Technology
    JO  - International Journal of Animal Science and Technology
    SP  - 50
    EP  - 61
    PB  - Science Publishing Group
    SN  - 2640-1312
    UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijast.20200403.11
    AB  - There are many infection and non infection disease those can decrease productivity of equine and even destroy their life. From those African horse sickness which caused by African horse sickness virus is the most characterized by high morbidity and mortality rates on equine. According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, the virus was Family: Reoviridae, Subfamily: Sedoreovirinae and Genus: Orbivirus which shares many morphological and structural characteristics with the other members of this genus, Bluetongue virus and Equine encephalosis virus. This virus double stranded RNA virus which contains two different proteins with nine serotypes. Transmission of this virus is based on presence of culicoidmidget arthropod mainly Cullicoides specious (c. imucola). This blood feeding arthropod transmit virus mechanically and transovarially, however entrance of the virus through different mechanism that virus used based on protein contains. Replication is done by replicate enzyme of virus in host cytoplasm & virus protein translation by host machinery. From all sero-type AHS types 1-8 are considered to be highly pathogenic for horses and disease results in high mortality (90-95%). This virus resistant to different chemical, temperature range and PH value due to presence of some proteins. Cullicoides have different specious those are small insect, obligate blood sucker. In general, after surveillance was done for both virus and insect, control and prevention of African horse sickness is overcome by flow control strategy of virus and insect. Even though this review have best contribution during develop control strategy.
    VL  - 4
    IS  - 3
    ER  - 

    Copy | Download

Author Information
  • National Animal Health Diagnostic and Investigation Center, Sebeta, Ethiopia

  • National Animal Health Diagnostic and Investigation Center, Sebeta, Ethiopia

  • Sections